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題 名 | 由先秦道家的“為我”主張看中國傳統文化的“個人主義”=Reflections on Weiwo Concept of Pre-Qin Daoism and on Individualism in Chinese Traditional Culture |
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作 者 | 張富祥; | 書刊名 | 儒教文化研究 |
卷 期 | 12 2009.08[民98.08] |
頁 次 | 頁29-60 |
分類號 | 121.35 |
關鍵詞 | 楊朱; 為我主張; 無為而治; 個人主義; 集體主義; Yang Zhu; Weiwo concept; The idea of governing by doing nothing that is against nature; Individualism; Collectivism; |
語 文 | 中文(Chinese) |
中文摘要 | 現代西方學者所界定的個人主義,強調以“自我”為中心,很容易使人想到中國先秦道家的“為我”主張。 中國先秦道家的“為我”主張,以楊朱為代表人物,號稱“不拔一毛利天下”,以為“人人不損一毫,人人不利天下”則“天下治”。這一主張基於道家“全性葆真,不以物累形”的人生哲學,其中包涵了對生命的重視、“自我”存在價值的肯定及人人生來平等的觀念。而在先秦學者的政治言論中,專從人性論及人生觀的立場出發,以個人為社會治理的起點,這也是最明確的表述。其核心觀念很接近《簡明不列顛百科全書》所說:“個人本身就是目的,具有最高價值,社會只是達到個人目的的手段。” 道家“為我”主張的政治含義指向“無為而治”。“無為而治”的理想狀態,有如《老子》所描述的“小國寡民”式的古樸社會景象,還帶有濃厚的自然主義色彩。其政治理念實際偏主於一種“自生自發的秩序”,或說是原始性的“無政府主義”。楊朱所提供的治世模型,把這種“自生自發的秩序”具體化了,突出了風俗制度形成過程中的個人主義因素,因而強調社會治理以個體(個人或家庭)為本位,人人為自我也就是自我為人人,個體自治則群體亦治。所謂“人人不損一毫,人人不利天下”,引伸開來,也就可以理解為“任何人或集團都無權決定另外一個人的情形應該怎樣”。這樣的個人主義主張是建立在中國古代分散經營而力求自給自足的小農經濟基礎上的,並且明顯包含了對當下社會風俗制度的批判和否定,並不能簡單地指斥為利己主義,然與歷代儒家大力宣導的集體主義精神直接相衝突。 在中國學術史上,楊朱“為我”的理論表述不過曇花一現,因為它不適於中國傳統文化的土壤。中國傳統文化培植起來的是根深蒂固的集體主義,作為一種政治和社會哲學的個人主義,在歷代占統治地位的思想中幾乎沒有存在的餘地。中國傳統文化的重大特徵之一是宗法制度從未中斷過,而與宗法集體主義並行的是道德至上主義(或說是泛道德化的傾向)。集體主義和個人主義都屬於歷史的範疇,二者都離不開道德評價,而在中國傳統文化的特定語境中,二者的關係集中而普遍地體現為公私之分、義利之辨。中國文化的現代轉型,一方面是個人權利意識的強化與個人權益保障制度的改善;另一方面,提倡道德自律、服務責任、大局觀念、整體精神,並因此而反對形形色色與自私自利相聯繫的個人主義(特別是傳統宗法式的“家族主義”),仍將是長期而必要的舉措。 |
英文摘要 | Individualism defined by modern western scholars lays stress on egoism, which naturally reminds people of Weiwo concept of pre-Qin Daoism. Weiwo concept of Chinese pre-Qin Daoism is represented by Yang Zhu, who holds that being stingy is favorable for the nation. He states that if everyone is unwilling to lose a penny and merely concerned about his own profits, then the state can be peacefully ruled. This concept is based on the Daoist’s life philosophy of keeping one’s true nature and doing no harm to one’s health for the material things, which embodies the concepts of valuing life, approving egoism and asserting everyone is born equal. Among the political theories of pre-Qin scholars, this is the most definite statement which expresses from the standpoint of the theory of human nature and view of life that individual is the basis of governing a state. The core concept of it is quite similar to what is written in Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: “Individual itself is the end, and of the highest value. Society is only a means to an end.” The political connotation of the Weiwo concept of Daoism is directly pointed to Lao Zi’s idea of governing by doing nothing that is against nature. This ideal state, as described in Laozi (the book), is a simple sight of “small territory and population” and bears the impression of naturalism. The political idea of it puts emphasis on a spontaneous order, or a primary anarchism. By proposing the governing type, making this spontaneous order more specific and stressing the individual factor during the forming process of customs, Yang Zhu emphasizes that individual (or family) is the basis of governing a society, that one for oneself means one individual for all, and that individual self-governing leads to collective governing. The so-called idea of “everyone is unwilling to lose a penny and merely concerned about his own profits” can be more explicated that anyone or any group has no right to determine what another should be like. Such concept is based on the small-scale peasant economy, which is of decentralized management, but trying to be self-sufficient. It contains evident criticism and negation of the social customs at that time. So, it cannot be simply criticized as egoism, and yet it is directly contradictory to the collectivism advocated by Confucians. In the Chinese academic history, Yang Zhu’s Weiwo concept is only a nine day’s wonder since it doesn’t agree with the Chinese traditional culture. Collectivism is deeply planted and rooted in Chinese traditional culture. Individualism, a political and social philosophy, has no place in the dominating thoughts of the past dynasties. Patriarchal clan system is one of the most important characteristics of Chinese traditional culture. The concept of “Morality foremost” (or pan-moralizing tendency) is the idea that keeps abreast with patriarchal clan collectivism all the time. Collectivism and individualism fall into historical category and both are closely related to moral evaluation. In the specific context of Chinese traditional culture, the relationship between collectivism and individualism is embodied in “publicity and privacy” and “righteousness and profits”. The modern transformation of Chinese culture is, on the one hand, the strengthening of the awareness of individual rights and the improvement of individual rights and benefits protection; on the other hand, it is also reflected in the advocation of moral self-discipline, service duty, overall consciousness and associative spirit. Therefore, it is still a long-term and necessary task to combat various egoism in the form of selfishness, particularly the traditional patriarchal familism. |
本系統中英文摘要資訊取自各篇刊載內容。